Writing
takes time
Find out when is the assignment due and devise a
plan of action. This may seem obvious and irrelevant to the writing process,
but it's not. Writing is a process, not merely a product. Even the best
professional writers don't just sit down at a computer, write, and call it a
day. The quality of your writing will reflect the time and forethought you put
into the assignment. Plan ahead for the assignment by doing pre-writing: this
will allow you to be more productive and organized when you sit down to write.
Also, schedule several blocks of time to devote to your writing; then, you can
walk away from it for a while and come back later to make changes and revisions
with a fresh mind.
Use the
rhetorical elements as a guide to think through your writing
Thinking about your assignment in terms of the
rhetorical situation can help guide you in the beginning of the writing
process. Topic, audience, genre, style, opportunity, research, the writer, and
purpose are just a few elements that make up the rhetorical situation.
Topic and audience are often very intertwined
and work to inform each other. Start with a broad view of your topic such as
skateboarding, pollution, or the novel Jane Eyre and then try to focus or
refine your topic into a concise thesis statement by thinking about your
audience. Here are some questions you can ask yourself about audience:
- Who
is the audience for your writing?
- Do
you think your audience is interested in the topic? Why or why not?
- Why
should your audience be interested in this topic?
- What
does your audience already know about this topic?
- What
does your audience need to know about this topic?
- What
experiences has your audience had that would influence them on this topic?
- What
do you hope the audience will gain from your text?
For example, imagine that your broad topic is
dorm food. Who is your audience? You could be writing to current students,
prospective students, parents of students, university administrators, or
nutrition experts among others. Each of these groups would have different
experiences with and interests in the topic of dorm food. While students might
be more concerned with the taste of the food or the hours food is available,
parents might be more concerned with the price.
You can also think about opportunity as a way to
refine or focus your topic by asking yourself what current events make your topic
relevant at this moment. For example, you could connect the nutritional value
of dorm food to the current debate about the obesity epidemic or you could
connect the price value of dorm food to the rising cost of a college education
overall.
Keep in
mind the purpose of the writing assignment.
Writing can have many different purposes. Here
are just a few examples:
- Summarizing:
Presenting the main points or essence of another text in a condensed form
- Arguing/Persuading:
Expressing a viewpoint on an issue or topic in an effort to convince
others that your viewpoint is correct
- Narrating:
Telling a story or giving an account of events
- Evaluating:
Examining something in order to determine its value or worth based on a
set of criteria.
- Analyzing:
Breaking a topic down into its component parts in order to examine the
relationships between the parts.
- Responding:
Writing that is in a direct dialogue with another text.
- Examining/Investigating:
Systematically questioning a topic to discover or uncover facts that are
not widely known or accepted, in a way that strives to be as neutral and
objective as possible.
- Observing:
Helping the reader see and understand a person, place, object, image or
event that you have directly watched or experienced through detailed
sensory descriptions.
You could be observing your dorm cafeteria to
see what types of food students are actually eating, you could be evaluating
the quality of the food based on freshness and quantity, or you could be
narrating a story about how you gained fifteen pounds your first year at
college.
You may need to use several of these writing
strategies within your paper. For example you could summarize federal nutrition
guidelines, evaluate whether the food being served at the dorm fits those
guidelines, and then argue that changes should be made in the menus to better
fit those guidelines.
Pre-writing
strategies
Once you have thesis statement just start
writing! Don't feel constrained by format issues. Don't worry about spelling,
grammar, or writing in complete sentences. Brainstorm and write down everything
you can think of that might relate to the thesis and then reread and evaluate
the ideas you generated. It's easier to cut out bad ideas than to only think of
good ones. Once you have a handful of useful ways to approach the thesis you
can use a basic outline structure to begin to think about organization.
Remember to be flexible; this is just a way to get you writing. If better ideas
occur to you as you're writing, don't be afraid to refine your original ideas.
Introduction to
Prewriting (Invention)
Summary: This
section explains the prewriting (invention) stage of the composing process. It
includes processes, strategies, and questions to help you begin to write.
Contributors:Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-06-08
02:40:36
When you sit down to write...
- Does
your mind turn blank?
- Are
you sure you have nothing to say?
If so, you're not alone. Many writers experience
this at some time or another, but some people have strategies or techniques to
get them started. When you are planning to write something, try some of the
following suggestions.
You can try the textbook formula:
1. State
your thesis.
2. Write an
outline.
3. Write the
first draft.
4. Revise
and polish.
. . . but that often doesn't work.
Instead, you can try one or more of these
strategies:
Ask
yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.
There are many "correct" things to
write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For
example, your topic might be "dorm food." At this point, you and your
potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should
you write about this, and why should anyone read it?
Do you want the reader to pity you because of
the intolerable food you have to eat there?
Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional
cooking?
Do you want to compare Purdue's dorm food to
that served at Indiana University?
Ask
yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.
How, for example, would you achieve your purpose
if you wanted to describe some movie as the best you've ever seen? Would you
define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the
movie go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it?
Start
the ideas flowing
Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas,
suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps some
friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material
you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep adding to the list at odd
moments as ideas continue to come to mind.
Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are
being interviewed by someone — or by several people, if possible (to give
yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several different points
of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might also try to
teach the subject to a group or class.
See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens
up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy by using the word like. For example,
if you are writing about violence on television, is that violence like clowns
fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is really getting
hurt)?
Take a rest and let it all percolate.
Summarize your whole idea.
Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.
Diagram your major points somehow.
Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to
see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for
more material in some places. Write a first draft.
Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it
aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else. Watch especially for the need
to clarify or add more information.
You may find yourself jumping back and forth
among these various strategies.
You may find that one works better than another.
You may find yourself trying several strategies at once. If so, then you are
probably doing something right.
Writing a Research Paper
Summary: This
handout provides detailed information about how to write research papers
including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding sources.
Contributors:Jack Raymond Baker, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17
05:43:38
The
Research Paper
There will come a time in most students' careers
when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a
great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in
procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety
frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and
inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity
are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an
essential aspect of academics, and should not be avoided on account of one's
anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the
more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many
students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of
the reasons this topic is so important.
Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in
any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few
individuals for whom this process comes naturally; remember, even the most
seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at
some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice,
a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of
all, patience, a student will find that she can achieve great things through
her research and writing.
This handout will include the following sections
related to the process of writing a research paper:
- Genre- this section
will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an
analytical and argumentative research paper.
- Choosing a Topic- this section
will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the
topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses himself.
- Identifying an Audience- this section
will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of
audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
- Where Do I Begin- this section
concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue,
and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research
paper.
Close
Reading a Text and Avoiding Pitfalls
Summary: This
handout covers major topics relating to writing about fiction. This covers
prewriting, close reading, thesis development, drafting, and common pitfalls to
avoid.
Contributors:Purdue OWL
Last Edited: 2010-04-21 08:26:08
Writing about a story or novel can be difficult because fiction is
generally very complex and usually includes several points or themes. To
discover these interwoven meanings, you must read the work closely. Below are
three techniques for reading fiction actively and critically. Close reading
takes more time than quick, superficial reading, but doing a close reading will
save you from a lot of frustration and anxiety when you begin to develop your
thesis.
Close Reading a Text
Use these "tracking" methods to yield a richer
understanding of the text and lay a solid ground work for your thesis.
1. Use a
highlighter, but only after you've read for comprehension. The point of
highlighting at this stage is to note key passages, phrases, turning points in
the story.
Pitfalls:
Highlighting too much
Highlighting without notes in the margins
2. Write
marginal notes in the text.
These should be questions,
comments, dialogue with the text itself.
A paragraph from Doris
Lessing's short story "A Woman on a Roof" serves as an example:
The second paragraph could have
a note from the reader like this:
Marginal Notes
|
Text
|
Why is the man annoyed by
the sunbather? Is Lessing commenting on sexist attitudes?
|
Then they saw her, between chimneys, about
fifty yards away. She lay face down on a brown blanket. They could see the
top part of her: black hair, aflushed solid back, arms spread out.
"She's stark naked," said Stanley,
sounding annoyed. |
3. Keep a
notebook for freewrite summaries and response entries.
Write quickly after your
reading: ask questions, attempt answers and make comments about whatever
catches your attention. A good question to begin with when writing response
entries is "What point does the author seem to be making?"
4. Step
back.
After close reading and
annotating, can you now make a statement about the story's meaning? Is the
author commenting on a certain type of person or situation? What is that
comment?
Avoiding Pitfalls
These four common assumptions about writing about fiction
interfere with rather than help the writer. Learn to avoid them.
1. Plot Summary
Syndrome
Assumes that the main task is
simply recalling what happened in detail. Plot summary is just one of the
requirements of writing about fiction, not the intended goal.
2. Right Answer
Roulette
Assumes that writing about
fiction is a "no win" game in which the student writer is forced to
try to guess the RIGHT ANSWER that only the professor knows.
3. The
"Everything is Subjective" Shuffle
Assumes that ANY interpretation
of any literary piece is purely whimsy or personal taste. It ignores the
necessity of testing each part of an interpretation against the whole text, as
well as the need to validate each idea by reference to specifics from the text
or quotations and discussion from the text.
4. The "How Can
You Write 500 Words About One Short Story?" Blues
Assumes that writing the paper
is only a way of stating the answer rather than an opportunity to explore an
idea or explain what your own ideas are and why you have them. This sometimes
leads to "padding," repeating the same idea in different words or
worse, indiscriminate "expert" quoting: using too many quotes or
quotes that are too long with little or no discussion.
Strategies for Variation
Summary: This
resource presents methods for adding sentence variety and complexity to writing
that may sound repetitive or boring. Sections are divided into general tips for
varying structure, a discussion of sentence types, and specific parts of speech
which can aid in sentence variety.
Contributors:Ryan Weber, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17
05:36:37
Adding sentence variety to prose can give it
life and rhythm. Too many sentences with the same structure and length can grow
monotonous for readers. Varying sentence style and structure can also reduce
repetition and add emphasis. Long sentences work well for incorporating a lot
of information, and short sentences can often maximize crucial points. These
general tips may help add variety to similar sentences.
1. Vary
the rhythm by alternating short and long sentences.
Several sentences of the same length can make
for bland writing. To enliven paragraphs, write sentences of different lengths.
This will also allow for effective emphasis.
Example: The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska
last summer to find some native American art. In Anchorage stores they found
some excellent examples of soapstone carvings. But they couldn't find a dealer
selling any of the woven wall hangings they wanted. They were very disappointed
when they left Anchorage empty-handed.
Revision: The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska
last summer to find some native American art, such as soapstone carvings and
wall hangings. Anchorage stores had many soapstone items available. Still, they
were disappointed to learn that wall hangings, which they had especially
wanted, were difficult to find. Sadly, they left empty-handed.
Example: Many really good blues guitarists have all had
the last name King. They have been named Freddie King and Albert King and B.B.
King. The name King must make a bluesman a really good bluesman. The bluesmen
named King have all been very talented and good guitar players. The claim that
a name can make a guitarist good may not be that far fetched.
Revision: What makes a good bluesman? Maybe, just maybe,
it's all in a stately name. B.B. King. Freddie King. Albert King. It's no
coincidence that they're the royalty of their genre. When their fingers dance
like court jesters, their guitars gleam like scepters, and their voices bellow
like regal trumpets, they seem almost like nobility. Hearing their music is
like walking into the throne room. They really are kings.
2. Vary
sentence openings.
If too many sentences start with the same word,
especially "The," "It," "This," or "I,"
prose can grow tedious for readers, so changing opening words and phrases can
be refreshing. Below are alternative openings for a fairly standard sentence.
Notice that different beginnings can alter not only the structure but also the
emphasis of the sentence. They may also require rephrasing in sentences before
or after this one, meaning that one change could lead to an abundance of
sentence variety.
Example: The biggest coincidence that day happened when
David and I ended up sitting next to each other at the Super Bowl.
Possible
Revisions:
- Coincidentally,
David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the Super Bowl.
- In an
amazing coincidence, David and I ended up sitting next to each other at
the Super Bowl.
- Sitting
next to David at the Super Bowl was a tremendous coincidence.
- But
the biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up
sitting next to each other at the Super Bowl.
- When
I sat down at the Super Bowl, I realized that, by sheer coincidence, I was
directly next to David.
- By
sheer coincidence, I ended up sitting directly next to David at the Super
Bowl.
- With
over 50,000 fans at the Super Bowl, it took an incredible coincidence for
me to end up sitting right next to David.
- What
are the odds that I would have ended up sitting right next to David at the
Super Bowl?
- David
and I, without any prior planning, ended up sitting right next to each
other at the Super Bowl.
- Without
any prior planning, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other
at the Super Bowl.
- At
the crowded Super Bowl, packed with 50,000 screaming fans, David and I
ended up sitting right next to each other by sheer coincidence.
- Though
I hadn't made any advance arrangements with David, we ended up sitting
right next to each other at the Super Bowl.
- Many
amazing coincidences occurred that day, but nothing topped sitting right
next to David at the Super Bowl.
- Unbelievable,
I know, but David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the
Super Bowl.
- Guided
by some bizarre coincidence, David and I ended up sitting right next to
each other at the Super Bowl.
On
Paragraphs
Summary: The
purpose of this handout is to give some basic instruction and advice regarding
the creation of understandable and coherent paragraphs.
Contributors:Dana Lynn Driscoll, Allen
Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17 05:32:46
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a
single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay
on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also
greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have
fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion,
you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).
The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to
One Paragraph
The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea
to one paragraph. If you
begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are
some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can
have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single
paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as
they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start
to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their
own paragraphs is the route to go.
Elements of a Paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of
the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits
overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you
construct effective paragraphs.
Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If
it begins with a one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with
another or wander within different ideas.
Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily
understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by
creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.
Logical bridges
- The
same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
- Successive
sentences can be constructed in parallel form
Verbal bridges
- Key
words can be repeated in several sentences
- Synonymous
words can be repeated in several sentences
- Pronouns
can refer to nouns in previous sentences
- Transition
words can be used to link ideas from different sentences
A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way
what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all
paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic
sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last
sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader
understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the
beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced
writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you
include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily
summarize what the paragraph is about.
Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be
discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph,
depending on the author's purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that
only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is
not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is
well-developed:
- Use
examples and illustrations
- Cite
data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
- Examine
testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
- Use
an anecdote or story
- Define
terms in the paragraph
- Compare
and contrast
- Evaluate
causes and reasons
- Examine
effects and consequences
- Analyze
the topic
- Describe
the topic
- Offer
a chronology of an event (time segments)
How do I know when to start a new
paragraph?
You should start a new paragraph when:
- When
you begin a new idea or point. New ideas
should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that
spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its
own paragraph.
- To
contrast information or ideas. Separate
paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an
argument, or any other difference.
- When
your readers need a pause. Breaks in
paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding
these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a break if
the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
- When
you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph.
Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on
their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
Transitions and Signposts
Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and
transitions. Signposts are internal aids to assist readers; they usually
consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has
covered and where the article will be going.
Transitions are usually one or several sentences that
"transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at
the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.
Annotated Bibliographies
Summary: This
handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and
CMS.
Contributors:Dana Bisignani, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-07-06
09:59:37
Definitions
A bibliography is a list
of sources (books, journals, websites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for
researching a topic. Bibliographies are sometimes called "references"
or "works cited" depending on the style format you are using. A
bibliography usually just includes the bibliographic information (i.e., the
author, title, publisher, etc.).
An annotation is a
summary and/or evaluation.
Therefore, an annotated
bibliography includes a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources.
Depending on your project or the assignment, your annotations may do one or
more of the following:
- Summarize: Some
annotations merely summarize the source. What are the main arguments? What
is the point of this book or article? What topics are covered? If someone
asked what this article/book is about, what would you say? The length of
your annotations will determine how detailed your summary is.
- Assess: After
summarizing a source, it may be helpful to evaluate it. Is it a useful
source? How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography? Is
the information reliable? Is this source biased or objective? What is the goal
of this source?
- Reflect: Once you've
summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into your
research. Was this source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your
argument? How can you use this source in your research project? Has it
changed how you think about your topic?
Your annotated bibliography
may include some of these, all of these, or even others. If you're doing this
for a class, you should get specific guidelines from your instructor.
Why
should I write an annotated bibliography?
To learn
about your topic: Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a
research project. Just collecting sources for a bibliography is useful, but
when you have to write annotations for each source, you're forced to read each
source more carefully. You begin to read more critically instead of just
collecting information. At the professional level, annotated bibliographies
allow you to see what has been done in the literature and where your own
research or scholarship can fit. To help you formulate a thesis: Every good
research paper is an argument. The purpose of research is to state and support
a thesis. So a very important part of research is developing a thesis that is
debatable, interesting, and current. Writing an annotated bibliography can help
you gain a good perspective on what is being said about your topic. By reading
and responding to a variety of sources on a topic, you'll start to see what the
issues are, what people are arguing about, and you'll then be able to develop
your own point of view.
To help
other researchers: Extensive and scholarly annotated bibliographies are sometimes
published. They provide a comprehensive overview of everything important that
has been and is being said about that topic. You may not ever get your
annotated bibliography published, but as a researcher, you might want to look
for one that has been published about your topic.
Format
The format of an annotated bibliography can
vary, so if you're doing one for a class, it's important to ask for specific
guidelines.
The
bibliographic information: Generally, though, the bibliographic
information of the source (the title, author, publisher, date, etc.) is written
in either MLA or APA format. For more help with formatting, see our MLA handout. For APA, go here: APA handout.
The
annotations: The
annotations for each source are written in paragraph form. The lengths of the
annotations can vary significantly from a couple of sentences to a couple of
pages. The length will depend on the purpose. If you're just writing summaries
of your sources, the annotations may not be very long. However, if you are
writing an extensive analysis of each source, you'll need more space.
You can focus your annotations for your own
needs. A few sentences of general summary followed by several sentences of how
you can fit the work into your larger paper or project can serve you well when
you go to draft.
Introduction
Summary: This
handout provides examples and description about writing papers in literature. It
discusses research topics, how to begin to research, how to use information,
and formatting.
Contributors:Purdue OWL
Last Edited: 2011-10-19 02:27:10
What Makes a Good Literature Paper?
An argument
When you write an extended literary essay, often one requiring
research, you are essentially making an argument. You are arguing that your
perspective-an interpretation, an evaluative judgment, or a critical
evaluation-is a valid one.
A debatable thesis statement
Like any argument paper you have ever written for a first-year
composition course, you must have a specific, detailed thesis statement that
reveals your perspective, and, like any good argument, your perspective must be
one which is debatable.
Examples
You would not want to make an argument of this sort:
Shakespeare's Hamlet is a play about a young man who
seeks revenge.
That doesn't say anything-it's basically just a summary and is hardly debatable.
A better thesis would be this:
Hamlet experiences internal conflict
because he is in love with his mother.
That is debatable, controversial even. The rest of a paper with
this argument as its thesis will be an attempt to show, using specific examples
from the text and evidence from scholars, (1) how Hamlet is in love with his mother, (2) whyhe's in
love with her, and (3) what implications there are for reading the play in this manner.
You also want to avoid a thesis statement like this:
Spirituality means different things to
different people. King Lear, The Book of Romans, and Zen and the Art of Motorcycle
Maintenance each
view the spirit differently.
Again, that says nothing that's not already self-evident. Why
bother writing a paper about that? You're not writing an essay to list works
that have nothing in common other than a general topic like "spirituality."
You want to find certain works or authors that, while they may have several
differences, do have some specific, unifying point. That point is your thesis.
A better thesis would be this:
Lear, Romans, and Zen each view the soul as the
center of human personality.
Then you prove it, using examples from the texts that show that
the soul is the center of personality.
